1. Nicole Belmont, Poétique du conte: Essai sur le conte de tradition orale (Paris: Gallimard, 1999), 60–64, offers a good discussion of opening and closing formulas in connection with the general otherness of fairy tales.
2. F. Max Müller, “Solar Myths,” The Nineteenth Century 18 (1885), 902.
3. Lang, Custom and Myth (London: Longmans, Green, 1893), 12–13, 21, 22. Lang’s view adapts the theory of “survival in culture” proposed by Edward B. Tylor, Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom (New York: Holt, 1889), 1: 70–111.
4. Andrew Lang, Introduction to Cinderella: Three Hundred and Forty-Five Variants of Cinderella, Catskin, and Cap o’ Rushes Abstracted and Tabulated with a Discussion of Mediaeval Analogues, and Notes, ed. Marian Roalfe Cox (London: Nutt, 1893), 13.
5. See a short, spirited comparison of Cosquin’s diffusionist thesis with Lang’s evolutionist outlook in Emmanuel Cosquin, L’Origine des contes populaires européens et les théories de M. Lang (Paris: Bibliothèque des Annales Économiques, 1891). Cosquin’s view stems from a thesis proposed by Theodor Benfey, Pantschatantra: Fünf Bücher indischer Fabeln, Märchen und Erzählungen, vol. 1 (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1859). Cosquin discusses Benfey’s thesis in the introduction to his own Contes populaires de Lorraine comparés avec les contes des autres provinces de France et des pays étrangers, et précédés d’un essai sur l’origine et la propagation des contes populaires européens (Paris: Vieweg, 1887).
6. This is a point made by Alan Dundes, Interpreting Folklore (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980), 39.
7. Emmanuel Cosquin, Les Contes indiens et l’Occident: Petites monographies folkloriques à propos de contes maures recueillis à Blida par M. Desparmet (Paris: Champion, 1922), 245. (Unless otherwise stated, all translations from the French are my own.) The French text in question is in C. J. Mayer, ed., Le cabinet des fées, ou Collection choisie des contes de fées, et autres contes merveilleux, vol. 31 (Genève: Barde, 1786), 255–261. It is a variant of the tale type 408, “The Three Oranges” in the Aarne-Thompson-Uther (ATU) classification; see Hans-Jörg Uther, The Types of International Folktales: A Classification and Bibliography, Based on the System of Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson (Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 2004); and Christine Goldberg, The Tale of the Three Oranges (Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1997), 187, seems inclined to moor the transformation sequence in the Middle East.
8. Lang, “Introduction,” 10.
9. For a classic discussion of folklore as an ongoing selective process, see Roman Jakobson and Petr Bogatyrev, “Folklore as a Special Form of Creation.” See an updated discussion in Francisco Vaz da Silva, “Tradition Without End,” in A Companion to Folklore, Wiley-Blackwell Companions to Anthropology, ed. Regina F. Bendix and Galit Hasan-Rokem (Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 40–54.
10. Richard M. Dorson, “Theories of Myth and the Folklorist,” Daedalus 88.2 (1959): 284.
11. F. Max Müller, Chips from a German Workshop, vol. 2: Essays on Mythology, Traditions and Customs (New York: Scribner, 1895), 52–53, 72–73.
12. Ibid., 160.
13. Ibid., 53.
14. Ibid., 74.
15. Ibid., 224, 258.
16. Müller, “Solar Myths,” 916.
17. F. Max Müller, Lectures on the Science of Language, vol. 2 (London: Longman, Green, 1873), 548.
18. Henri Gaidoz, “Comme quoi M. Max Müller n’a jamais existé: Étude de mythologie comparée,” Mélusine 2.4 (1884): 73–90. The original English essay by R. F. Littledale, “The Oxford Solar Myth,” was printed in 1870 in an obscure Irish magazine and then republished in Comparative Mythology: An Essay, ed. Abram Smythe Palmer (London: Routledge, 1909). See Richard M. Dorson, “The Eclipse of Solar Mythology,” in The Study of Folklore, ed. Alan Dundes (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 63 n. 22.
19. Müller, Lectures, II: 372, 385.
20. Ibid., 392.
21. Ibid., 413.
22. Müller, “Solar Myths,” 903–904; Chips, II: 56–59.
23. Müller, Chips, II: 53.
24. Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, ed. Angela Richards, trans. James Strachey (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1991), 469; Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, ed. and trans. James Strachey (New York: Norton, 1989), 184.
25. Freud, Interpretation of Dreams, 467.
26. Freud, Introductory Lectures, 185. The “‘genuine’ thing” behind the manifest dream element is, of course, the unconscious dream-thought.
27. Ibid., 186, 195.
28. Ibid., 188.
29. Freud, Interpretation of Dreams, 468.
30. Freud, Introductory Lectures, 205, 207.
31. Ibid., 189.
32. Ibid., 205.
33. Freud, Interpretation of Dreams, 468 n.2; cf. Introductory Lectures, 206. Freud borrowed this idea from Hans Sperber.
34. Freud, Interpretation of Dreams, 467–468.
35. Freud, Introductory Lectures, 204.
36. See Freud’s tenth lecture in Introductory Lectures, and Interpretation of Dreams, 466–529 (chapter 6 section E).
37. Erich Fromm, The Forgotten Language: An Introduction to the Understanding of Dreams, Fairy Tales and Myths (New York: Grove, 1957), 6.
38. Ibid., 9.
39. Ibid., 241.
40. Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales (London: Peregrine Books, 1978), 173–175.
41. Ibid., 170.
42. Géza Róheim, “Fairy Tale and Dream: ‘Little Red Riding Hood,’” in Little Red Riding Hood: A Casebook, ed. Alan Dundes (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 164.
43. Robert Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 13.
44. Ibid., 11, 13.
45. Ibid., 9, 29.
46. Jack Zipes, in The Trials and Tribulations of Little Red Riding Hood (New York and London: Routledge, 1993), 4, drew attention to the fact that Darnton provides a “truncated” translation.
47. Darnton, Great, 13.
48. A representative list of the French oral variants of “Little Red Riding Hood” may be found in Paul Delarue, Le conte populaire français: Catalogue raisonné des versions de France et des pays de langue française d’outre-mer, 2d ed. (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1985), 1: 375–381. The text selected by Darnton is on pages 373–374. Translations are available in Paul Delarue, ed, The Borzoi Book of French Folk Tales, trans. Austin E. Fife (New York: Arno Press, 1980, 230–232; Paul Delarue, “The Story of Grandmother,” in Little Red Riding Hood: A Casebook, ed. Alan Dundes (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 15–16; and Zipes, Trials, 21–23.
49. Nadia Sels, “Myth, Mind and Metaphor: On the Relation of Mythology and Psychoanalysis.” S.4 (2011): 58. http://www.lineofbeauty.org/index.php/S/article/view/20/24.
50. Carl Gustav Jung, “Psychological Aspects of the Mother Archetype,” in The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, ed. Herbert Read, Michael Fordham and Gerhard Adler, trans. R. F. C. Hull (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969), 79, 81. For a fine discussion, see Robert A. Segal, “Introduction,” in Jung on Mythology, ed. Robert A. Segal (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 40–41.
51. Marie-Louise von Franz, The Interpretation of Fairy Tales, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala, 1996), 43 (italics in the original).
52. Ibid., 44.
53. Carl Gustav Jung, “The Psychology of the Child-Archetype,” in Introduction to a Science of Mythology: The Myth of the Divine Child and the Mysteries of Eleusis, ed. Carl Kerényi, trans. R. F. C. Hull (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970), 104 (italics in the original).
54. Ibid., 109 (italics in the original).
55. von Franz, Interpretation, 43–44.
56. Jung, “Paracelsus as a Spiritual Phenomenon,” cited in Segal, “Introduction,” 18.
57. Segal, “Introduction,” 9.
58. von Franz, Interpretation, 7.
59. Jung, “Psychology,” 104–105 (italics in the original), 109.
60. Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 21–22; cf. 4.
61. Freud, Introductory Lectures, 347.
62. Joseph Campbell, Flight of the Wild Gander: Explorations in the Mythological Dimension (Selected Essays, 1944–1968) (Novato, CA: New World Library, 2002), 12 (italics in the original). This is a reprint of the book that was originally published in 1969 by Viking.
63. Ibid., 13.
64. Ibid., 35. Here Campbell specifies that myth has a “biological function.”
65. Ibid., 15, 125.
66. Ibid., 12.
67. See Alan Dundes, “The Method of Julius Krohn,” in International Folkloristics: Classic Contributions by the Founders of Folklore, ed. Alan Dundes (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 39; and “The Anthropologist and the Comparative Method in Folklore,” Journal of Folklore Research 23.2–3 (1986): 131–132. For a lucid explanation of the historical-geographic method, see Stith Thompson, The Folktale (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), 413–448.
68. Kaarl Krohn, Folklore Methodology, trans. Roger L. Welsch (Austin: American Folklore Society/University of Texas Press, 1971), 64.
69. Carl Wilhelm von Sydow, “Folktale Studies and Philology: Some Points of View,” in The Study of Folklore, ed. Alan Dundes, 233, 240 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 233, 240.
70. Archer Taylor, The Black Ox (New York: Arno, 1980), 6.
71. Valdimar Hafstein, “The Constant Muse: Copyright and Creative Agency,” Narrative Culture 1.1 (2014): 24.
72. Krohn, Folklore, 122; Thompson, The Folktale, 436–437.
73. I translate from Brüder Grimm,Kinder- und Haus-Märchen: Gesammelt durch die Brüder Grimm, 2d ed., vol. 1 (Berlin: Reimer, 1819), 16. This statement first appeared in Brüder Grimm, Kinder- und Haus-Märchen: Gesammelt durch die Brüder Grimm, 1st ed., vol. 2 (Berlin: Realschulbuchhandlung, 1815), 10. All translations from Kinder- und Haus-Märchen (henceforth KHM) benefit from the precious help of Teresa Bairos, whom I thank here. For other translations, see Maria Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms’ Fairy Tales (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), 221, and Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm, The Original Folk and Fairy Tales of the Brothers Grimm: The Complete First Edition, ed. and trans. Jack Zipes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014), 272.
74. Brüder Grimm, Kinder- und Haus-Märchen. Gesammelt durch die Brüder Grimm, 1st ed., vol. 1 (Berlin: Realschulbuchhandlung, 1812), 13–14. See other translations of this statement in Tatar, Hard Facts, 208, and Grimm and Grimm, Original Folk and Fairy Tales, 6–7.
75. See a fine translation of this passage in Tatar, Hard Facts, 220–221.
76. Jacob Grimm, “Circular Concerning the Collecting of Folk Poetry,” in International Folkloristics: Classic Contributions by the Founders of Folklore, ed. Alan Dundes, trans. Johanna Micaela Jacobsen and Alan Dundes (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 6.
77. Philip Pullman, Grimm Tales: For Young and Old (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2012), 19.
78. Alan Dundes, “Fairy Tales from a Folkloristic Perspective,” in Fairy Tales and Society: Illusion, Allusion, and Paradigm, ed. Ruth Bottigheimer (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986), 261.
79. Dundes, Interpreting Folklore, 34.
80. Ibid., 36.
81. Ibid., 38.
82. Alan Dundes, The Meaning of Folklore: The Analytical Essays of Alan Dundes, ed. Simon J. Bronner (Logan: Utah State University Press, 2007), 319.
83. Alan Dundes, Parsing through Customs: Essays by a Freudian Folklorist (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 38, 167–168.
84. Dundes, Meaning of Folklore, 321.
85. Dundes, Parsing, 170.
86. Dundes, Meaning of Folklore, 321.
87. Freud, Introductory Lectures, 185.
88. Freud, Interpretation of Dreams, 474.
89. For a fuller discussion, see Francisco Vaz da Silva, “Fairy-Tale Symbolism,” in The Cambridge Companion to Fairy Tales, ed. Maria Tatar (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 97–116.
90. Dundes, Meaning of Folklore, 322.
91. Dundes, Interpreting Folklore, 10.
92. Freud, Introductory Lectures, 188.
93. See Dundes, Parsing, 173.n.7.
94. Cabeça do caralho. A close expression, cara de caralho (“dick face”), matches English “dickhe*d.”
95. Freud, Interpretation of Dreams, 474.
96. Dundes, Interpreting Folklore, 112, 115–119; Meaning of Folklore, 322.
97. Freud, Introductory Lectures, 206.
98. Michael P. Carroll, “Allomotifs and the Psychoanalytic Study of Folk Narratives: Another Look at ‘The Roommate’s Death,’” Folklore 103.2 (1992): 226. Another line of Freudian interpretation, independent of Dundes, has been proposed in France by Belmont, Poétique du conte.
99. Dundes, Interpreting Folklore, 33. See Bengt Holbek, Interpretation of Fairy Tales: Danish Folklore in a European Perspective (Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1998), 407.
100. Dundes, Parsing, 38.
101. Dundes, Interpreting Folklore, 37.
102. Holbek, Interpretation of Fairy Tales, 409.
103. Ibid., 439; cf. 428.
104. Ibid., 418 (italics in the original).
105. Ibid., 495 (my emphasis).
106. See a detailed discussion in Francisco Vaz da Silva, “Bengt Holbek and the Study of Meanings in Fairy Tales,” Cultural Analysis 1 (2000): 1–6.
107. Holbek, Interpretation of Fairy Tales, 439; cf. 428.
108. Dundes, Interpreting Folklore, 36.
109. Tatar, Hard Facts, 55.
110. Ibid., 79.
111. Ibid., 80.
112. Ibid., 80.
113. Ibid., 72.
114. Sigmund Freud, New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, ed. and trans. James Strachey (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1991), 52.
115. Tatar, Hard Facts, 82.
116. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Jealous Potter, trans. Bénédicte Chorier (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1988), 194.
117. Ibid., 205.
118. Ibid., 186–187. That this argument applies to folktales as well as myths is made clear in his “Structure and Form,” in Theory and History of Folklore, ed. Anatoly Liberman, trans. Monique Layton (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 186–188.
119. Claude Lévi-Strauss, Le cru et le cuit (Paris: Plon, 1964), 345.
120. Lévi-Strauss, Jealous Potter, 186.
121. Ibid., 193–194.
122. Ibid., 192–193.
123. Ibid., 194–195.
124. Ibid., 197.
125. Ibid., 186.
126. Müller, Lectures, II: 372.
127. Mark Johnson, “Philosophy’s Debt to Metaphor,” in The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought, ed. Raymond W. Gibbs Jr. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 43.
128. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 3, 45.
129. Lévi-Strauss, Jealous, 194 (my emphasis).
130. Lévi-Strauss, Cru, 9.
131. See Lévi-Strauss’s many such pronouncements in, for example, L’origine des manières de table (Paris: Plon, 1968), 13–14; L’Homme nu (Paris: Plon, 1971), 483–501; “The Deduction of the Crane,” in Structural Analysis of Oral Tradition, ed. Pierre Maranda and Elli Köngäs Maranda (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 3–21.
132. Vladimir Propp, Morphology of the Folktale, trans. Laurence Scott (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996), 6.
133. Mircea Eliade, Myth and Reality, ed. Willard R. Trask (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1998), 202. For a compelling development of this insight regarding one particular fairy tale, see N. J. Girardot, “Initiation and Meaning in the Tale of Snow White and the Seven Dwarves,” Journal of American Folklore 90.357 (1977): 274–300. Geneviève Calame-Griaule, Des cauris au marché: Essais sur des contes africains (Paris: Mémoires de la Société des africanistes, 1987), showed the pronounced association in sub-Saharan societies between fairy-tale themes and initiation symbolism.
134. Vladimir Propp, Les racines historiques du conte merveilleux, trans. Lise Gruel-Apert (Paris: Gallimard, 1983), 470.
135. Propp, Morphology, 37, 39.
136. Propp, Racines, 69–71.
137. Lakoff and Johnson, Philosophy, 139, 140, 146.
138. A point raised by Max Lüthi, The European Folktale: Form and Nature, trans. John D. Niles (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1982), 130
139. Propp, Morphology, 114; and Racines, 16, 63.
140. I have developed this idea in “Fairy-Tale Hybridity,” in Routledge Companion to Fairy-Tale Cultures and Media, ed. Pauline Greenhill, Jill Terry Rudy, Naomi Hamer, and Lauren Bosc (New York: Routledge), forthcoming.
141. Holbek, Interpretation of Fairy Tales, 267, 398–399.
142. The following highlights draw on my “Charles Perrault and the Evolution of ‘Little Red Riding Hood,’” Marvels & Tales 30.2 (2016): forthcoming.
143. Perrault’s Moralité to “Le Petit Chaperon rouge” is often omitted in popular editions and children’s books.
144. Yvonne Verdier, “Little Red Riding Hood in Oral Tradition,” trans. Joseph Gaughan, Marvels & Tales 11.1–2 (1997): 107. Verdier’s contribution to the elucidation of “Little Red Riding Hood” is of exceptional importance.
145. Ibid., 112.
146. I quote from Tatar’s translation in The Classic Fairy Tales (New York: Norton, 1999), 13.
147. The text that Delarue gave as an example of the French oral variants in Conte populaire 1:375–381—translated in Delarue, Borzoi, 230–232, and Delarue, “Story,” 15–16—features a werewolf. Indeed, such creatures are regular denizens of the forest cabin in French fairy tales; see Francisco Vaz da Silva, “Teaching Symbolism in ‘Little Red Riding Hood,’” in New Approaches to Teaching Folk and Fairy Tales, ed. Christa Jones and Claudia Schwabe, 172–188 (Logan: Utah State University Press, 2016), 176. Angela Carter lucidly resurrected the werewolf motif in her contemporary rewritings of “Little Red Riding Hood”; see Francisco Vaz da Silva, “Werewolf, Wolf, Wolves,” in The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Folktales & Fairy Tales, ed. Donald Haase (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2008), 1025–1027.
148. I develop these hints on werewolves and the moon in “Fairy-Tale Symbolism,” 107–108. See also my “Werewolf,” 1025–1027, and Roman Jakobson and Mark Szeftel, “The Vseslav Epos,” in Russian Epic Studies, ed. Roman Jakobson and E. J. Simmons (Philadelphia: American Folklore Society, 1949), 56–72.
149. Penelope Shuttle and Peter Redgrove, The Wise Wound: Menstruation and Everywoman (London: Marion Boyars, 1999), 127–129.
150. I explore the lunar dimension of fairy-tale initiatory scenes in “Fairy-Tale Symbolism,” 97–116, and in “Fairy-Tale Hybridity.”
151. The following highlights draw on my “Teaching Symbolism,” 181–182.
152. I am quoting from Grimm and Grimm, Original Folk and Fairy Tales, 86.
153. Ibid., 85.
154. Freud, Introductory Lectures, 192 (italics in the original); cf. 199.
155. See a fine discussion of this matter in Tatar, Hard Facts, 7–11.
